The Augmented Data, Information, and Knowledge (ADIK) System
Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge? Where is the wisdom we have lost in information? T. S. Eliot, choruses from "The Rock" LEARNING OBJECTIVES Explain how augmented data, information, and knowledge function together within an ADIK system. Compare and contrast examples of ADIK systems. Outline the evolutionary process of an ADIK system. Identify and describe the phases of the system development cycle. Give examples of how the word "system" as a title for something that exists (e.g., transportation system, medical system, etc.) is also a way of thinking. How would one determine if a system is achieving its purpose? OVERVIEW Our attention is focused on the meaning and importance of systems in our daily life. Systems are environments that respond to individual and collective needs and requirements. The nature of these needs and requirements is studied. Specifically, attention is di rected to the interest of the information scientist in the augmented data, information, and kn owl edge system that is di rec ted to r es pond to these needs and equir emen ts (see figure 4.1 ). This chapter will i nclude discussion of how these systems are requested, analyzed, designed, and evaluated as well as how these systems are managed and maintained. Introduction This chapter i s about human ingenuity a nd systems (people, tech nology, and processes) that define it. It i s about the huma n ability to extend it s native capacity through di scovery and invention. It is about th e human ability to go beyond the detail, to broaden the s cop e of immediat e capa cities to an understanding of their influences and impact. Information science is about systems past, current, and future, environments that apply and go beyond discovery and i nvention. In general, this is ref erred to as systems thinking, which is the guiding reference and application of the science. Systems (holistic) thinking sta rts with an accounting of the nature of the environment, the events and conditions that influence its state of being, the invention of tools, their use and management, and the establishme nt of i nstitutions (discussed in chapt er 2), which extend human capaciti es appli ed to events and situati on s tha t p revail (see figure 4.1). Terms We introduced th e idea of a n ADIK system. Te r ms that are u sed i n relation to this idea can aid our understanding. At the outset, it is clear that information scientists may vary in thei r d efinition of the following term s and/or how they are used. Events and Situations All of us are familiar with the words "event" and "situation,'1 but these are defi ned i n a more careful way below. Combin ed tog ether, the words become the term used in this book: "event world." An "event" is defined as a "a happening; occurrence, especially an important occurrence (Webster's New World 1951, 503). A scholarly way to d efine "event" is given in current literature as "some occurrence that may cause a syst em to change" (Booch, Rumbaugh, and Jacobson 1999, 20). Every even t mu st contain a time and, for most a nalysi s, step-by-step procedure for calculations that are ordered i n time (Ito and Sigg 2002). "Even t analysi s" i s a n umbrellaterm for a set of procedures that identify events and situations to which each component of the ADIK system responds. Events such as 9/11, Hurricane Katrina, earthquakes, tsunamis, or the war in Iraq are significant events with corresponding situations. These occurrences serve to reflect the ability of ADIK systems to respond. The 1918 flu epidemic led to the deaths of many individuals worldwide. Unfortunately, we can expect the sameas well as contrasting- events in the fu ture. The more unique an event, the more it is considered "noteworthy:' For instance, a normal daily sunrise will not be put in the headlines of a newspaper. Events can include states at the micro-macro, individual, organizational, and cultural levels. Information scientists, working with scientists and technologists, serve to design ADU( systems that can effectively acknowledge and respond to such events and situations. A "situation" is defined as the "place or position of things in relation to surroundings or to each other" (Murray, Little, and Onions 1964, 1904). Conditions and Event Analysis Events trigger some action (needs/requirements), such as the initiation-or stopping the executionof a specific plan or an occurrence that may cause the state of the system to change. The attention of information scientists can focus on the ability to understand the event and the corresponding consummations at the molecular, molar, individual, organizational, and cultural levels. This quest extends to other physical, behavioral, and management sciences with their related technology. The course of events and situations related to them has had a profound impact on people, organizations, and commerce. Information scientists attempt to understand the principles that govern the analysis and desi gn of ADIK systems that respond to events and situations. Object-oriented analysis (OOA) is one approach to an understanding of events and situations (Coad and Yeardon 1990; Booch, Rumbaugh, and Jacobson 1999). OOA attempts to understand the principles that define the data flow within a system. These principles would then serve as models from which we may start object-oriented design. The products of object-oriented design can then be used as blueprints for completely implementing a system using object-oriented programming methods (Booch 1999, 40). There are other models that can be applied. These models rest on an understanding of how people see (perceive) and create new objects as part of the reality of an event and situation. This understanding then can serve in the reasoning and judgment of an event/situation that is applied in the analysis and design of ADIK systems (Heise 1979). An understanding of events and situations is much broader than what may be implied above. For example, the analysis of events and situations can in- The Augmented Data, InformatiOn, and Knowledge (ADIK) System 67 elude methods that identify and define name and class of events, event condition, index, value, the application of histograms, and many mathematical tools {Ito and Sigg 2002). The important point is to understand the important role an understanding of events and situations plays in the analysis, design, and evaluation of ADIK systems. User Needs and Requirements The subject of user needs and requirements is of considerable import_ance to information scientists. Over the years, information scientists have studied various groups (scientists and others) to identify their needs for data, information, and knowledge. As could be expected, the findings from this research activity varied, depending on the group studied. The problem that exists rests on the double meaning of "need:' A "need" is defined in dictionaries as "a requirement;' and a "requirement" is defined as ((a need." To the student, for xample, a need is a textbook, which helps the student come closer to fulfillmg the requirement-that is, the class. This understanding, however, omits what the student will do with the book ( understand the material presented in the text). The book is a requirement that enables the student to understand (the need) the data, information, and knowledge presented in the class. Michael Brittain, the late British information scientist, discussed the difference (1970) between information need and demand {requirement) below: The definition of ((information demands" is relatively eas y. It refers to the demands, which may be vocal or written, and made to a librarian or to some other information system. The definition of "information need" is more difficult. In some cases needs will be synonymous with demand s: for example, where the user knows all the information that is relevant to his work, and makes a demand for an information source. At the other extreme, the user who makes very few demands but has many needs. He may have felt but unarticulated need (perhaps because of inertia or because he does not have sufficient specific details about the felt need to translate the need into a demand) or he may have an unfelt need (in which case he may not be aware that this is pointed out, which time he may readily agree that he has a need or he may not realize this until he _ need hs act ally been met). One of the problems in this aspect of user enqmry is termmological: there is no suitable word for "potential user" or "needier:' (Brittain 1970, 1-2) From the information professional's point of view, it is often difficult to obtain from the user a clear statement of what is needed from what is required. Over the years, information scientists have presented their views on information needs and requirements, often without coming to an agreement. In recent years, however, information scientists have come to consider information needs: the result of cognitive/affective processes (Case 2002; Nahl and Bilal 2007). Communication and information scientist Brenda Dervin, in her human need studies, proposes that an information need represents a "gap" between what the patron asks for and what is given the patron by the reference librarian (Dervin 1983). Other studies conducted by information scientist Nicholas Belkin suggest that the information need represents an anomaly, something given that is not consistent with what is asked and needed (Belkin 2005). Other concepts relate an understanding of the human need and requirement for information and knowledge to theories in pedagogy and motivation. Debons equates information and knowledge need to Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive and affective processes (see table 4.1). The taxonomy is used to identify the need and then to apply the determination as a tool to organize (prescribe) the physical requirements (i.e., books, reports, films, databases, specialists/experts, etc.) in response to the need that is represented by a task objective (see table 4.2). There is much to learn about how and why people use the library and other resources in their daily lives. The information scientist, together with other scientists (library, computer, and communication), combines their collective wisdom to determine and find ways that extend the individual's ability in meeting the collective individual needs and requirements for data, information, and knowledge. Needs Evaluation Synthesis Analysis Application Comprehension Awareness* Table 4.1. Needs and Requirements, Requirements Bring all the facts together in such a way that they make sense. Standards help; check for accuracy, effectiveness, economy, state of satisfying. Organizing material for effective use. Determine the best way. Data, information are presented to promote meaning of material that is available or the possibility of making it available. Assemble resources in a way that brings out the positive/negative attributes of products (technology, subject matter, books, and visual-auditory material). Organize and present material following understanding so that it can meet the demands of the moment or in the future. Psychological principle of !east effort is considered applicable. Appropriate definitions of subject matter and area of focus. Timeliness, completeness, ordering of data (what, where, when, who). Feedback to delivery of data for relevance and completeness. Source: Bloom (1956b). *"Knowledge" in Bloom's taxonomy. The Augmented Data, Information, and Knowledge (ADIK) System Internalizing Value Organization Valuing Responding to Phenomena Receiving Phenomena Adapted from Clark, 1999. Table 4.2. Bloom's Affective Domain. behavior controlled by some value system organizing values based on some priority value a person attaches to something taking an active part in learning; participating awareness; willingness to listen The Augmented Data, Information, and Knowledge System Background 69 Of course, the environment (physical and social) is forever a challenge to humankind. Human ingenuity in developing tools to deal with the challenge is the subject and study of history. The focus of information science is to understand the laws and principles that govern the generation and use of these tools (technology) that augment humankind's ability to deal with events that define and challenge its existence. f h d '' " " h " '' l'fy" "b t" d Synonyms o t e wor augment are en ance, amp 1 , oos , an "build up." For our purposes, we will go to Douglas C. Engelhart, electrical engineer and computer scientist, who introduced the term in 1962 as part of his research work at Stanford University in California. Engelbart's research studied how computers aid human thinking, particularly intelligence. The expression "artificial intelligence" has reference to this work later adopted and extended by cognitive scientists (Newell and Simon 1972) of CarnegieMellon University in Pennsylvania. Engelhart wrote that By "augmenting human intellect;' we mean increasing the capability of a man to approach a complex problem situation, to gain comprehension to suit his particular needs, and to derive solutions to problems. Increased capability in this respect is taken to mean a mixture of the following: more rapid comprehension, better comprehension, the possibility of gaining a useful degree of comprehension in a situation that was previously too complex, speedier solutions, better solutions, and the possibility of finding solutions to problems that before seemed insoluble. (Englebart 1962, I) As mentioned previously, systems are all around us. Human beings themselves are information systems. Information, as a state of consciousness or awareness, is fundamental to life. We use technology to help extend our awareness, solve problems, and make decisions. Joining these two ideas-awareness adding to awareness the technology to understand and search for meaning in what we do and in the world about us, we have an augmented data, information, and knowledge system. There are many ADU( systems around us (see figure 4.2). For example, management information systems help institutions plan, operate, and control numerous functions within an organization. Information management systems ensure the right kind of data and information to run, operate, manage, and direct systems efficiently and effectively. Information retrieval systems help store and retrieve the data and information we may need and require from the many databases that are available. From an added perspective, command/control/communication (C3) systems are ADIK systems used by the military in engaging operations. Composition of ADIK Systems What makes up such augmented, enhanced systems? ADIK systems include people, technology, and the functions/procedures that bring these together to achieve a goal. Technology can refer to many physical things around us. For example, sensors that extend the limits of our ability to see things in space (radar, satellites) or under the sea (sonar) are ADIK systems. So are the nervous systems in our bodies that move impulses from many parts of our body to our brain, enabling us to be aware and act. Transmitters are a form of technology that move signals from sensors to computers. There are many examples of transmitters that we are familiar with, such as phones, flags, signs, and cable. These processors are like computers, only slower and with less carrying capacity. Transmitters augment our ability to speak and signal through motion and other forms of action. Where are such augmented, enhanced ADIK systems? At the basic level, we can see elements of ADIK systems all around us. Pencils, pens, televisions, radios, fax machines, sensors, computers, satellites, and many other related technologies make up parts of ADIK systems. Although each of these technologies are systems in their own right and can be part of information systems, they are not what could be considered ADIK systems on their own. Yet when these various technologies are combined with people and procedures for the achievement of a specific objective or goal, then such technologies can be represented as part of ADIK systems. They add to the human sensory capabilities that we are born with and acquire. How about a Data System? Data systems consist of arrangements of symbols, the presence of which allow for the generation of rules as to their use for the representation of states or events in time and place. They can be represented graphically or linguistically, in both analog and digital form. They can be processed by humans and/or technology (adding machines, computers, etc.). How about Information Systems? An information system includes a sensing component that elicits the energy from an event through its sensor subsystem, transmission of this energy that is represented in some form (analog, digital) of a process (human or machine) enabling a response to a state or event. It responds to questions of what, where, when, and who. How about Knowledge Systems? The knowledge system is an extension of the information system. The knowledge element of the ADIK system relates directly to the various aids provided by the computer to enable problem solving and decision making. It includes the capacity to direct action by using all means of communication to transfer both information and knowledge to others. ADIK Systems: How Do They Come About? In answering this question, it is important to state that all of us (as noted previously) are data, information, and knowledge systems. We are part of the energy and matter system that surrounds us and to which we respond-sometimes willingly, other times unwillingly. Each impulse from this resource we symbolize and then order in the form of data that represent our state of awareness (information). Throughout our lifetime, we, as all scientists and artists, seek to find meaning in this interaction (knowledge). The focus of the information scientist is to determine the principles and laws that govern the use of technology (tools) that augment our native capacity to deal with this process. Based on theory and practice, information scientists work with information systems analysts, designers, and others to establish these principles and laws. The System Development Cycle ADIK systems come about after some person, institution, or organization recognizes a need and a requirement based on some task or problem to be solved, some decision to be made, or some activity to be initiated or managed. Technologies are applied to complement and extend human capacities that are deemed necessary to achieve goals and/or objectives. Goals are those ends for T11e Augmented Data, Information, a'rid Knowledge (ADIK) System 73 which the system is required (e.g., eliminate terrorism); objectives are the ways of achieving the goal (e.g., control bank accounts of terrorists) (see figure 4.3). Request for Proposal A request for proposal (RFP ) is a document that is initiated by a user, generally by a government agency) institution) a public or private organization, or citizen in response to a need and requirement. It states the user's expectation about the work to be done, the amount of money available to complete the project, and when the system should be available. The RFP is communicated to the public using a number of different published news announcements and other means to solicit bidding. The RFP can be broad in scope. The need and requirement for which a proposal is submitted could also include any one of the following: Fix a current system available to the user. For example) the current computer system has broken down and reqnires immediate repair. Or, the current sensor system that acquires data from a source is capturing the data incorrectly. Or, a unit of the company is incurring losses that exceed the resources available to it. Upgrade a current system because parts of it may be getting old and/or obsolete. It can be replaced to achieve goals and objectives better or more cheaply. An example would be if a company or office has expanded its operations. The current computer system storage and processing capacity is not enough to deal with the increased amount of data that the company or office is required to deal with. Create an ADIK system from "scratch; , because of a new need and requirement. This objective is less likely, but the possibility exists. Back in the early 1950s with the outset of Sputnik, new challenges to our understanding of the space environment (astronomy) have become evident. In our time, the aging population of the world requires new outlooks to deal with matters of housing and healthcare. Although ADIK systems presently exist that enable society to deal with snch problems, the creation of new ADIK systems based on these issues could require new-as well as updated-ADIK systems. Feasibility Study In responding to the RFP, the interested agent initiates a feasibility study to determine if the project can be undertaken given what can be done ( the state of the art), the people and the technological resources required to complete it within the time frame, and other constraints imposed by the user. This feasibility study will focus on the goal and function of the desired system. Once the contract is awarded to the successful bidder, the system analysis and design process will begin. Figure 4.3 provides two sketches of the various steps included in the cycle. System Analysis Process System analysis means exactly what the words imply. A system refers to an environment of people, tools, and procedures that are directed toward achieving or satisfying a stated objective. As discussed earlier, ADIK systems are assessed according to their ability to deal with events and situations that are confronted by the users of such systems. In the present case, analysis can refer to two related possibilities. One possibility (more often than not), as was suggested earlier, is that the system requires fixing or updating. The other possibility refers to the circumstances facing the user that would require an entirely new system. In each case, analysis refers to the careful breal,down of all the important factors in bringing together an environment (people, technology, and procedures) to enable the user to meet the needs that the event, situation, and/or condition demands. For example, take the case of the school superintendent faced with insuring the safety of all the students under his or her charge. This requires a study by the information system scientist of the current school environment (including teachers, students, maintenance people, and others as well) and the present ADIK system available to the superintendent or principal, as well as the likelihood of terrorist events and how to capture these events quickly to enable him or her to tale action to respond to the event and avoid harm to people in the school. In conducting a system analysis, it helps to have a picture- a sy stem model. The model includes the details of the entire present environment: the people, the technology, and how these work together on a moment-to-moment basis, from one place to another during a normal day. The system model is similar to blueprints architects use in the design of physical structures. Information system professionals may use different models to represent an ADIK system. The model may vary in how the basic working parts of the system are arranged in relation to each other (horizontally, laterally), but in general, the basic components of all these models are the same. The basic parts of the mode include input, that which enters into the system; throughput, the processing of the input; output, the result of the input; and feedback, the interaction between input, throughput, and output. In most models, the above are represented as arrows between the various components of the system. System Design Process Design refers to the general arrangement of people and technology related to each other to insure that the system given to the user(s) meets their needs and requirements. The system design process would include attention to the analysis completed by the system analysts, although it should be clear that, more often than not, the system analyst and system designer work together in the development of the system. In this process, the analyst's report is then translated and applied by the designer by detailing the use of all human and technological resources to be used in the system. The specifications are detailed in a document where each equipment and work process is fully described, including who will be using the equipment when, where, how, and why. The total cost of the ADIK system will also be provided by the designer at the time the design is presented, citing different design options with costs and risks pertaining to each, including any and all trade-offs. This is an estimate of the cost incorporating all these variables. System Management The system analysis and design project reqnires carefnl handling of available resources to ensure that the objectives of the system, as stated by the nser(s), are met. Figures 4.4a and 4.4b include two charting schemes (PERT and GANTT) that information system specialists use to help them determine whether or not the development of the system (for which they are responsible) is on schedule and, if not, what must be done about it. For example, suppose your "project" is to take a college course. There are several tasks your must complete: you must acquire the textbook, you must attend the classes, you must read the assignments, you must do the exercises in the book, you must review, and you must take the exam. To track the path and progress of this project, you can use either a GANTT chart or a PERT chart. GANTT/PERT The left side of the GANTT chart in figure 4.4a lists the various tasks involved in the project. The right side of the GANTT chart is a bar graph, which shows how the tasks interrelate within the time schedule of the project. The PERT chart in figure 4.4b takes a different approach, using arrows to represent tasks and "nodes" (small circles or ovals) to represent points in time at the start or end of activities. Note that during the project" described above, you cannot do the exercises in your book until you have finished the reading assignments. This is called a "constraint." Observe how this fact is represented in both the GANTT chart and the PERT chart. Both GANTT and PERT figures have been adapted from Kendall and Kendall (2002). Testing an ADIK System Simulation Once the designer completes the design specifications, the proposed system is ready for a test prior to its submission to the user(s) . One of the methods for testing the proposed system is to conduct a simulation. A simulation means submitting the system that the designer has proposed to a test to determine whether or not it will meet the user's needs and requirements. There are two important parts of a simulation. First, the content of the simulation is based on the model of the system used for the analysis. This will guide the determination of the data to be collected from the simulation. Second, the sinmlation requires an understanding of the tasks in which the user(s) will be engaged in field situations. Task analysis tries to identify and bring together the various functions of the system and, for each, the level of proficiency to be achieved. The results of the simulation could lead to changes in the proposed design of the system. The design of the system is now ready to be presented to the user(s). This will include software or hardware specifications, together with the specifications for a training program to prepare the individuals who will be using the new system. In this process, the intention is to increase the ability of the system to adjust to any number of changes that may occur. The user may be provided with more than one design for the system, varying in terms of costs and hardware/ software trade-offs. System Maintenance Once the ADIK system is installed in the field, it will be subject to a maintenance program and schedule. These will be established to insure that the system meets its criteria of system performance under continuing changes that occur in the environment. This is particularly important to the information system specialist. Software or hardware design undergoes ever-rapid changes in function, design, and costs that occur in the field. In addition, there may be errors and bugs in the system, new demands on the various parts of the system, and new regulations from both inside and outside the organization. This may include government. It is extremely important to realize that the maintenance of an ADIK system is most dependent on documentation. Documentation refers to the continuing physical record and accounting of all system activities on a time-to-time, component-to-component performance basis. This includes breakdown, loss of efficiency, and other elements of the overall ADIK system performance. In a world continually changing in purpose and function, individual discipline and skill by the information professional in detailing the state of any system at any particular point in time and space are critical. This system accounting could impact the function of both human and technological resources. The maintenance of a system requires a training program at two levels: the work level and the development level. At the work level, the trainee is given the principles that make the system work. At the developmental level, the trainee is given specific instruction in the coding of specific tasks to insure they meet system objectives. With the application of new technology to a system, the information scientist is interested in understanding how the introduction of new technology in an ADIK system workplace can influence individual and group performance. Work skills must respond to different task procedures and functions. This requires careful attention by the infor-mation professionals in establishing training programs. In the case when a new ADIK system is introduced to the working environment, the information scientist is required to develop a training program for the work demanded by the new system. SUMMARY Throughout history, humans have developed tools to deal with circumstances ( events and situations) faced. Each of these events and situations created demands for the use and extensions of native abilities in dealing with them. In the process, tools and procedures in their use were developed that met their mental (cognitive) needs and (physical) requirements. A major role of the information scientist is to determine the laws and principles that govern the application of these tools in meeting the needs and requirements of events and situations. These laws and principles serve the information system analyst and designer in analyzing, designing, and evaluating systems to meet the demands of events and situations. Thus, the augmented data, information, and knowledge (ADIK) system is an application of these tools. In the present text, the information system specialist is guided by a model (metaphor) that provides detailed mapping of the entire structure of the ADIK system and how each part (component) relates and contributes to the function of the entire system. The model also helps the information system specialist (engineer) in testing ( using simulation and other methods) the output of the analysis and design before it is proposed to the user. The information system specialist is also engaged in the development of a maintenance and training program to ensure the efficiency and effectiveness of the system in the workplace or field over the extended life of the system.