Chapter 7 - Computer

OVERVIEW

As human beings, we are constantly taking in data and information and trying to make sense of the world around us. In this respect, the computer extends our capabilities in the attempt to understand ourselves and the environment. This chapter examines the basic elements of the computer that are relevant to its role in data, information, and knowledge processing. See table 7.1 for an overview of the history of computers.

Computer Science

Computer science as a formal discipline was given expression by George Forsythe, a numerical analyst. The first computer science department was formed at Purdue University in 1962. The first person to receive a PhD from a computer science department was Robert Wexeblat at the University of Pennsylvania in December 1965 (www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/shallt/courses/134/history.html). Computer science enjoys an extensive heritage of human invention and creativity, as indicated in the aforementioned brief history of the science. The computer is a powerful tool for the manipulation of data (information) from many sources (events/situations). Its power derives from its ability to receive, store, and process a large amount of data based on simple rules for dealing with the presence or absence of states (yes/no, true/false). A computer is a machine for carrying out simple instructions quickly and accurately. Computer science derives its identity from research that determines the machine's ability to mimic and extend human capacities in problem solving and decision making (to think and talk as human beings do). Thus, research attention of computer scientists focuses on several critical facets of machine processing of data (information). The following are some of the areas of interest and research applications. Computer science has broader interests and applications beyond those that are cited.

• Power of computer programs (subtraction and recursion): How the computer solves a problem. The most important attribute of a computer is that it is programmable; when it leaves the factory, no one knows how it will be used. The application of computing power to a particular type of problem is entirely dictated by software.
• Machine language and its translation: The means through which computers function internally. Humans know English (or some other language). Computers know one and zero, electricity on and electricity off. Some of the first software was written to translate ones and zeroes into a form that humans could more easily understand. These programs, called compilers and interpreters, have continuously evolved to make computer programming easier.
• Increasing machine memory: The place where data are held to be used. Computer memory, like human memory, is a hardware component that gives the computer's "brain" ( CPU) ready access to data and instructions. Early computers had a few thousand memory addresses; current computers have billions!
• Communication among computers: With advances in telecommunications, one computer can access data stored on another, anywhere in the world, rapidly. Information stored in books is physically limited because there needs to be a copy of the book in every city or town or home where a person needs to access that information. Via computers and the Internet, anyone in the world can sit at home and access all the information on all the computers in the world.
• Information organization and retrieval: Ways that data are assembled and stored for use. Though originally conceived of as a mere computational tool, today's computer has evolved into a personal library, which we use just as our grandparents used the local library. Still, the enormous volume of data on the world's computers would be of little value if there were no way to find specific facts quickly. Computer scientists, such as those at Google and Yahoo, spend a large amount of effort devising efficient and scalable indexing schemes to cope with this ever-increasing volume and to enable us to search for and find things quickly.
• Application of artificial intelligence: The ability of the computer to think for itself. Science fiction has long predicted the arrival of the "self-aware" machine, as in the movie The Terminator. When the first computers were invented, scientists predicted that they would quickly outsmart the human brain. Now sixty years later, computers are far more powerful than we ever imagined, and yet we cannot begin to match the complexity of the human brain. The cause of this paradox is that until we started building computers, we had no appreciation for the power of the brain. Computer scientists, psychologists, and other scientists continue to investigate the mysteries of the human mind, in the hope of developing smarter computers.
• Data mining: The vast amount of data obtained from sensors and processed by computers provide a rich resource with respect to applications in problem solving and decision making faced by individuals and organizations. Computer scientists study the many ways that the vast amount of data can be searched and processed to enable the discovery of knowledge applied to varied problems and decisions.
• Virtual reality. An artificial computer-generated environment in which users interact with the environment and objects in it through specialized input devices such as goggles, headphones, and gloves. This area is a physical manifestation of artificial intelligence, involving learning, perception, and other properties of human activity. The vast challenges presented to computer scientists in this field are being met through advanced objectoriented programming techniques and the development of specialized hardware such as Microsoft's Xbox and Sony's Playstation.
• Robotics: Use of computers to simulate and control physical activity. Since the Industrial Revolution, humans have had the ability to power machines and do useful work. Computer programming makes possible at least low-level decision making by machines. These two abilities combined enable us to build machines that can "think," both detecting physical events and enacting physical responses. Robotics applications are commonplace in manufacturing today, but are also important in specialized areas such as space exploration and homeland security.

The Computer and Processing Subsystem: Hardware as Information System

The computer stores, processes, and manages data at greater volume and efficiency than is humanly possible and is an essential part of an ADIK system. Truly, technology extends our activities of daily living. Computers come in many forms, shapes, sizes, and applications (ubiquitous). Some computers try to mimic what people do but without their presence. In virtual reality people interact with a simulated environment. Most familiar is the desktop PC commonly found in homes, schools, and offices. However, they are so engrained in our everyday lives that it is very easy to overlook the many types that we interact with daily. There are handheld computers-such as personal digital assistants-and there are mainframe computers that can take up entire rooms. There are tiny computers-"chips"-in many familiar household items. Regardless of their size, all computers share fundamental characteristics. Computers are comprised of hardware and software. Hardware refers to the physical components like the disk drive, and software refers to the applications or programs that run on them, like Microsoft Office. All computers have a motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), input and output capabilities, and data storage. Depending on the computer's specifications, in one nanosecond (or one billionth of a second), these simple components are capable of processing more data than a human might in one month. Each of these components serves a unique function, which we discuss below.

The Motherboard and Central Processing Unit

One of the fundamental parts of a computer is found in the motherboard. This is where all the various components of a computer meet. It holds the CPU, the memory card, and the expansion slots and ports that connect the input and output devices such as the keyboard, monitor, and printer. The central processing unit is where all of the data processing occurs (see figure 7.2). It is comprised of thousands of tiny interconnected transistors. The bits of data are shifted and organized here, either in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) or the control logic unit (CLU). The ALU is responsible for the mathematical calculations and logical decisions. The CLU keeps track of the steps that occur in the processing. Sometimes, this is referred to as the "brain" of the computer. While our brains enable us to perform many tasks, we also store thoughts in our brain. The computer also has ''memory" and can store nearly infinite amounts of data.

Memory

Memory is essential to computers. This is where all of our data is stored in many different file types. It is essential because computers must be capable of holding vast quantities of data and information. There are two main types of computer memory: random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM). RAM is the primary memory source, sometimes compared to the human short-term memory. It runs the operating system and software applications. The more RAM a computer has, the more applications it can run simultaneously. Types of RAM include SRAM (static RAM), DRAM (dynamic RAM), and SD RAM (synchronous dynamic RAM). DRAM is the cheapest of these, and the amount of memory per chip is very dense. SRAM is significantly more expensive than DRAM, but it is also more efficient and faster. SDRAM is the fastest and the standard for the RAM in most personal computers. If RAM is the short-term memory, then ROM is sometimes compared to the human long-term memory. Here, data is permanently stored and cannot be erased. This memory holds programmed instructions for the computer that can only be read by the CPU. ROM comes in different types, including PROM (programmable ROM) and EPROM (erasable programmable memory). The ability to access all of this memory and utilize the processing power in daily activities is provided to us by the input and output devices, which also come in several forms. The input and output devices are connected to ports on the computer, usually located in the back of the case. Through these ports, the monitor, keyboard, printer, or other so-called peripheral devices are connected to the computer (see figure 7.3).

Input and Output Devices

Peripheral devices are the input and output devices that allow us to access and manipulate the data stored on our computer. Input refers to the data that we enter into the computer. There are multiple devices that allow us to enter data into a computer. Most familiar would be the keyboard or touchpad. However, there are many others, some of which include the digital scanner, digital pad and stylus, and speech input. Once the data is entered and stored, we can manipulate or move the data with the use of devices such as the trackball, mouse, head pointer, joystick, digital stylus, or voice recognition, to name the bestknown sources. Output refers to the information that the computer generates, or puts out. A screen or monitor attached to a computer allows the user to interact with the data via a graphical user interface (GUI). As with input devices, there are many output devices. These devices allow us to view or access the data, including the printer, sound speakers, and screen-reading technologies. People with a hearing impairment use a printer that generates paper documents, a screen reader. Another technology automatically announces or "reads" the information that is visible on the screen to give access to individuals with visual impairment. When combined, all of this technology allows us to use, access, and store information more efficiently and for different purposes. To this point, we have discussed the fundamental components of computers in their most basic form. We described the "parts" of a computer. However, as we will discuss below, the computer augments much more than our ability to process, manipulate, and store data. With human ingenuity, computers are increasingly faster, smaller, and less expensive. This has enabled us to apply computers for broader and often quite significant uses in our daily lives. This is what makes them the most important technological innovation of our time.

The Most Important Technological Innovations

Computers and information technologies are an integral part of the ADIK system. Through graphical and statistical analysis, we can identify patterns or trends in the data that lead us to explanations for both best and worst practices in business, health, education, and government. These explanations give us the power to change and refine our existing systems and to improve them. As we know, optimized systems yield the highest rates of production. Higher productivity leads to increased profits and strong economic systems. Increased wealth leads to greater well-being for society's residents. Well-being for individuals leads to a healthier society. When societies share their best practices, the entire global community can benefit. Computers and the Internet support world collaboration and exchanges of information. This is why it is imperative that we make the information on the Internet accessible to as many people as possible, available via as many technologies as possible. Because the computer supports our ability to share information, and this impact serves the global community, the computer is the most important technological invention of our time. To demonstrate this, we offer the following examples of practical applications in space, transportation, security, and medical informatics.

Robots and the Computer

Robotology, that is, the study, design, and engineering of robots that can simulate human actions driven by specific functional objectives, is a new area of interest to computer scientists. It allows the study of motion and other processes to serve a diverse set of objectives and interests. Robotology spans a wide area of scientific and technological interests (e.g., medicine, space), particularly for computer scientists (Desiano 2002).

Space Technologies: GIS, GPS Satellites

Computers are used in space to give us information that we cannot gather here on the ground. A growing application of computer technology is geographic information systems (GIS). GIS includes the computers, software, and other equipment mounted on satellites launched from earth. This equipment collects, analyzes, and maps information about the environment ( Ganzorig 2002). These systems allow us to view our environment from space. They are used to monitor ground water levels, forests, soil erosion, mineral exploration, natural disaster management, wasteland mapping, coastal studies, forecasting agricultural output, irrigation, drought assessment, and flood mapping. This is accomplished through a satellite-based remote-sensing system that provides aerial photography and data collection through airborne sensors. When processed, the data provides ecological insights that can aid economic development and environmental protection in the most remote areas of our planet. Global positioning systems (GPS) are another expanding application. This remote-sensing technology monitors the longitude and latitude coordinates of a device on the earth's surface. It sends that data to a satellite for retrieval and retransmission. The data reveal the exact location of the device. The automobile industry has begun to equip cars with these systems to aid drivers when they are in need of directions or emergency assistance, and for tracking stolen vehicles. In some states, these tracking devices are being used to monitor convicted criminals who are serving time under house arrest.

Transportation

While GPS is enhancing the automobile industry's abilities to ensure safe travels, its impact on safer air travel is also significant. Airports themselves are complex information systems monitoring the logistics of people, cargo, and aircraft. Computer technology is also used to monitor flight instruments of aircraft from the ground to ensure our safety.

Security

When used appropriately, computers and information technology have the ability to reduce hazards in our lives. An example is when they are used to deter terrorist acts against the public. Subways and other public areas have security systems. Cameras and closed-circuit television capture everything that happens remotely. Such data enable security personnel to monitor all activity. In 2005, London's Underground was subjected to a terrorist attack that consisted of multiple explosions. As part of the built-in security system, cameras that monitor the activity that occurs throughout the Underground were in place. Closed-circuit television cameras captured everything that happened on the platforms and in the cars, remotely. This data enabled authorities to see which passengers were in each of the cars involved in the blasts. This information-combined with real-time reporting facilitated by mobile telephones equipped with digital cameras, Web access by people who were also in the blasts, and live television feeds from news agencies-led to the quick capture of the surviving terrorists. Another field related to security is called biometrics. It is based on the fact that all humans are physically different from each other, just as snowflakes are. According to the U.S. governmenfs Biometric Consortium website ( www.biometrics. org/intro.htm [accessed May 2006]), "biometrics are automated methods of recognizing a person based on a physiological or behavioral characteristic. Among the features measured are face, fingerprints, hand geometry, handwriting, iris, retinal, vein, and voice." Because each of us has unique facial characteristics, facial recognition is one application of biometric technology that is increasingly being used in crowded public spaces to enhance our security (Norton 2000). A formula is created to find features. Also, a database of many people's features is found to compare the single set to. Optimally, it would follow the "three bears" rule (see below)-it is neither too difficult nor too easy to compare the features. If too many details are given- such as if there is only the fact they have noses and eyes-in such case, everyone would be a match (Norton 2000, 663-77). Biometrics is an important area of study to the information scientist, who is concerned with individual freedom and security in the use of data, information, and knowledge. The "three bears" rule is named after the traditional English children's story in which Goldilocks enters the vacant cottage of the three bears. Inside, she samples everything she finds. The great huge bear's porridge/chair/bed is too hot/hard/high, the middle bear's things are too cold/soft/low, but the little small wee bear's things are "just right!" (Biometrics Working Group 2002, 2).

Biometrics

Biometrics refers to a number of processes such as finger printing, face structure, hand geometry, eye profiles (IRIS), hand writing, and voice that are used for a number of objectives (security, criminology, etc.). Biometricians attempt to utilize a number of these applications to understand events and the many human and organizational factors influenced by them. See www.biometric.org /introduction.php for more information.

Bibliometrics

Another area of information science interest that sounds similar to biometrics, but is really much different, is called bibliometrics. Bibliometrics is a study that attempts to trace relationships among various citations included in documents to determine their importance to a particular work: interrelationship among authors, their schools of thought, and academic affiliations (Norton 2000). The game "The Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon" might be called an informal form of bibliometric mapping, representing the networks of relationships between people. It is: based on the theory that Kevin Bacon is the center of the entertainment universe, and that any actor or actress can be linked back to him, typically within six degrees (six connections) (variations on this game are based on the assumption that almost anyone in the world can be linked to anyone else in the world by six or seven degrees). (www.distance.syr.edu/bacon.html [accessed May 16, 20061)

Medical Informatics

While biometric technologies are helping to improve security, medical technologies ( medical informatics) are also helping to improve our quality of life. Today, many new medical devices and procedures are possible because of computer technology. The fusion of technology and health care allows both patients and physicians to reap benefits. For the patient, the benefits include less pain, less invasive procedures, faster recovery, shorter hospital visits, and rehabilitation. For the physician, the benefits include safer procedures through enhanced digital imaging diagnostics, observation, and surgical tools.
Even medical education is enhanced through digital operating rooms. At the University of Pittsburgh, medical students are able to view surgical procedures in a digital operating room (Roach 2003). This operating room is equipped with voice-activated and digital surgical equipment, as well as teleconferencing capacity. While surgeons perform live operations, students observe via teleconferencing in the adjacent web lab. They simultaneously practice the same procedure on simulated anatomical models, which allows them to perfect their technique before attempting to work on live patients. Students watching doctors perform surgery in the next room via teleconferencing equipment is certainly impressive. However, it is even more impressive when the doctors are performing the procedure and the patient is in another country! Not long ago, this may have seemed like science fiction, but it is a reality today thanks to fiber optics and surgical robots. The first telesurgery (a gall bladder removal) was performed in 2001 by two doctors in New York, while the patient was physically located in France ( Osborne 2001 ). Remotely guided robotic arms equipped with tiny cameras and computers allowed the surgeon to be on the other side of the world, but they are just as helpful in performing medical procedures when the doctor and patient are in the same room. For example, SPY is an intraoperative imaging system used in coronary bypass surgery that lets doctors see the blood pathways they have created while the chest is still open, confirming the success of the surgery (Gerhardus 2003). Before this technology, a doctor would have to close the patient's chest, test the pathways, and if they were not functioning properly, the patient would have to be reopened. Obviously, the information from the imaging technology shortens the procedure and reduces the physical stress on the patient. Another way technology is making surgery safer is radio frequency identification (RFID) (FDA Consumer 2005). Surgichip Tag Surgical Marker System uses RFID to mark parts of the patient's body for surgery. This ensures the surgeon will perform the correct procedure on the correct side of the correct patient! W ith so many patients being seen in a hospital at a time, managing the patient data in an accurate and timely manner is a complex yet crucial task. While this technology increases the accuracy of information, the timeliness of medical transcription is another area benefiting from technology. Consider this scenario, provided by Thomas Friedman in his book, The World Is Flat (2005): Late at night, a patient comes to an emergency room in the United States. The doctor on call determines that tests need to be performed. The tests are completed, but no one will be available to transcribe the results until the next shift of technicians arrives in the morning. This means the patient will have to wait until the afternoon of the next day for diagnosis. However, thanks to technology, physicians can send the test results to India for transcription ove rnight, and because of the time-zone difference, a patient can get much faster diagnosis in the early morning hours as opposed to the early afternoon! Again, just another example of enhanced patient care made possible by computer technology.

Challenges to Computer Science

There are many challenges to the present and future computer scientist and correspondingly to the information scientist. Only a few can be suggested. Important developments in hardware, software, and engineering aspects of computers offer several important challenges to the computer scientist. Like most advances in technology, the more that components are added to the computer system, the more the advances approach limits with respect to the upper limits of system application . Computer scientists will continue their research in advancing the ability of the computer to reach every quarter of life (ubiquitous computing). Computers will become invisible (virtual); they will come in different sizes, each suited to particular task. Research in the practical applications of virtual reality and artificial intelligence will present new challenges. The Internet and Web will continue to influence almost all quarters of civic interest and management. Meanwhile, understanding the upper limits of computer technology with respect to individual and organizational usage offers new opportunities for research and applications. This challenge rests in part on the ability of computers (hardware/software) to aid individuals and institutions in dealing with the many human aspects of living- namely, the individual and organizational management and operations of health, economy, privacy, or terror, to cite a few. The future will increase the ability of sensors and other sources, both human and technological, to elicit data from eve nts. This will require close collaboration of the computer scientist with other disciplines in data, information, and knowledge organization and manage ment. In turn, this challenge will include determining the objectives of the science and how these can be applied to the education of the future computer scientist (Weiser 1991).

Summary

The present-day computer has a long history in its development. Each component of the computer, as a technology, evolved as electro nic engineering and other advances made possible wider usage in the ability of the computer to process data, information, and knowledge. Research and development in memory storage capacity, input, and output broadened computer applications. In this chapter, the basic parts and functions of the computer are detailed. In addition, professional applications of the computer in extending our abilities to several areas of interest- space, medicine, bibliometrics-are briefly presented together with the challenges that face computer science.